Прочитай текст и выполни задания 12–18. В каждом задании запиши в поле ответа цифру 1, 2, 3 или 4, соответствующую выбранному варианту ответа.
Is deduction even science, Mr Holmes?
Think about the plot of every whodunnit story. It usually starts off with something like: "Shock horror! There's a dead body! How do we solve this?" Cue suspicion, suspense, and drama. Then, the detective appointed to the case will tirelessly piece together clues to get the full picture of that fateful, stormy night. The detective will usually follow a "top-down" approach — which means they apply general rules to specific cases. The aim, for any detective, is to eventually approach the truth and find the culprit. This process, known and used in the areas of philosophy, mathematics, and computer science, is called deductive reasoning. It involves taking what truths you already know and applying them to specific situations.
Sherlock Holmes, arguably fiction's most famous detective, prided himself on using deductive reasoning. He favoured its logic, rationality, lack of uncertainty, way of approaching truth — and its "scientific" nature. Here is one of the most famous quotes that describes this philosophy: "When you have eliminated all which is impossible, then whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth."
The opposite is also the case: scientists often liken themselves to Holmes. Many people believe scientific research to be "nature's detective story" — scientists try to piece together the clues from the world around us. Some say that the ultimate goal of science is to uncover the truth about the universe, like when detectives solve crimes. But — in practice — this isn't how science works.
The philosopher Francis Bacon was the first person to introduce the idea of a method to "do" science. He suggested that ideas should be tested using experiments. In other words, science has always followed a "bottom up" approach, opposite to the detectives' "top down" way of solving mysteries. In science, we build upon each other's work, testing smaller, measurable effects and extrapolate them into wider contexts.
In philosophy, this is known as inductive reasoning. Bacon wanted to introduce this idea to push the boundaries of human knowledge. But, Holmes's goal is not to push the limits of human knowledge — just, simply learn the facts and come to a conclusion for a singular, specific case. He uses his knowledge of biology and chemistry as a tool — the same way an engineer uses physics.
In science, by taking samples of data and trying to apply that to some sort of conclusion about the world, we introduce other factors that mean we can never reach the absolute truth. Lab conditions, while making experiments repeatable — are not real-world conditions. Correlation does not always equal causation. Science has uncertainty. It can't tell you what the "truth" is. Plus, science is conducted by humans with their own sets of biases and worldviews, so it might not actually be so logical and rational, after all. The only certainty we have in science is if you can prove something is not true. This concept, known as falsifiability, was brought to light by another philosopher — Karl Popper.
I suppose, in some way, only being able to prove falseness is similar to Holmes's approach: "once you have eliminated the impossible…", but in reality, we still don't know the limits of what is possible in science.
Many modern philosophers of science have criticised the Baconian scientific method, saying it introduces bias, and that, because it is conducted by humans, science can never be logical. This is why it is vital for scientists to collaborate, compare results across different worldviews, and critically review each other's work.
Some philosophers of science would agree with Holmes's view that theorising before collecting evidence biases judgement. But in science, where else would you start? It's not like we have a dead body to go off, after all.
12. Deductive reasoning...
1) draws a general conclusion from specific observations.
2) starts with a general idea and reaches a specific conclusion.
3) aims at developing a theory.
4) goes from small to big.
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13. Some scientists feel as if they are detectives because...
1) they like detective stories.
2) Sherlock Holmes was a scientist.
3) they think they have the same purpose as Sherlock Holmes.
4) their working methods are identical to Sherlock Holmes's.
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14. A truly scientific approach, unlike Sherlock Holmes's approach, …
1) begins with a general fact.
2) leads us to the truth.
3) goes from small to big.
4) can't be irrational.
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15. What is the main idea of Francis Bacon?
1) People should go beyond the boundaries of their knowledge about the world.
2) People should use special tools in science.
3) Facts are important, we should analyse certain facts to understand the whole picture of the world.
4) People should observe carefully to learn more about the world.
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16. Which of the following statements, based on the text, is TRUE?
1) Science always makes mistakes.
2) Science can't give us true facts because some scientists are not qualified enough and can be emotional.
3) Scientists conduct experiments in conditions that are close to the real world.
4) It's almost impossible for science to be objective.
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17. Francis Bacon's theory is criticised because...
1) it creates a lot of uncertainties.
2) it is conducted by illogical humans.
3) Bacon applies a philosophical approach to an exact science.
4) it does not agree with modern science.
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18. What does the author suggest to make science more logical?
1) Scientists should introduce one universal view of the world.
2) All scientists should work together.
3) People should accept that science will always be illogical.
4) Scientists should use Holmes's approach in their research.
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